The great interest of the article is the author's insistence that the fly menace must be attacked by the diversion and regulation of destructive agencies already in existence, not by heroic measures such as the suggested wholesale destruction of the larger wild mammals. As natural checks to the reproduction of the fly he recognises such agencies as grass-fires, flooding, and exceptional seasons, and also points out that agricultural methods and settlement conditions, both native and European, can be regulated so as to produce and extend fly-free belts.

The areas in which cattle can live at present are what are called by the Germans "culture steppes," that is areas from which the bush has been artificially removed, so that shelter for the flies is no longer present. Such culture steppes contain many villages, and the search for firewood, the cultivation of the land, the browsing of stock, and the presence of buildings ensures that the surrounding lands are kept cleared. Other villages are scattered through the bush, and being near the breedinggrounds of the fly are constantly infested with the pests. It is possible, either by experimental clearing or, more satisfactorily, by steady propaganda among the natives, to extend the bush-free areas, to assist the natives in acquiring cattle, and to take measures to ensure the expansion of fly-free grazing grounds as the flocks increase. Among the measures suggested and already put partially into practice are the making of a rule that young growth should not be allowed on cleared land near villages; the encouragement of goat-keeping; endeavouring to make the natives dig up the stumps of destroyed bush for firewood instead of seeking this in uncleared land; and encouraging the use of the plough, which involves the removal of stumps. In regard to the last point, the starting of large-scale cotton-growing in the cleared areas is a great aid in ensuring that the land is kept free from bush. Another point on which much stress is laid is the need for delaying the annual grass-burning till the end of the dry season (October), and then ensuring that it is carried out in organised fashion. It then leads to the destruction of much of the smaller woody growth, and also of the fly pupae, and further drives the adult flies out before the fire into previously burned patches or towards unburned thickets. In some cases the flies can then be destroyed in large numbers by hand before they disperse. Exceptional seasons also may lead to local extermination of the fly, and it is possible that re-infection might be prevented in some cases, and a permanent fly-free area established.

Throughout the article emphasis is laid on the necessity of reclamation schemes, that is on the attempt to make and to keep particular areas free from the pest, and then to work outwards from these, and upon the necessity of teaching the native population to tackle their own problems practically on the basis of the knowledge acquired by those engaged in research. This involves the concentration of population in areas accessible to administrative assistance, which can furnish labour capable of being used in organised campaigns against the fly. This again means that the native population must increase, which depends

both upon the possibility of increasing the number of cattle kept and upon a knowledge of hygiene. Since, however, the flocks can only increase in fly-free belts, there is an obvious justification for beginning in areas where conditions are at least relatively favourable, in the hope that it may be possible later to bring about a coalescence of fly-free areas, or at least to reduce the fly-belts to a minimum.

AMERICA.

An Ascent of Aconcagua. In this Magazine, vol. XXXIX. p. 260, a short account was given of an unsuccessful attempt to climb Aconcagua in January 1923, by a party composed of Mr. M. F. Ryan, Mr. James Cochrane, and Mr. Eric Pilditch. The two former, accompanied by Mr. T. Clayton and Mr. C. B. Macdonald, accomplished this feat successfully last January. During the course of their expedition they climbed Almacen, of which no previous ascent has been recorded, and on the basis of aneroid observations estimated its height at between 17,000 and 18,000 feet. Torlosa was also climbed with some difficulty, and estimated to reach 18,000 feet. In making the attempt on Aconcagua, an element in the success attained was the fact that the party succeeded in getting mules up to a height of nearly 19,000 feet, believed to constitute a world's record. From the upper camp, placed near that of Fitzgerald, the summit was reached without great difficulty. It was found to consist of white andesite. The cairn left by the Fitzgerald expedition was opened, and the thermometer and visiting-card left by Mr. W. S. M. Vines removed.

GENERAL.

Geographical Research in Russia. We have received from Emeritus-Professor J. Schokalsky some notes on this subject. In 1923. the Russian Geographical Society sent an expedition to Mongolia under the leadership of Mr. P. K. Kozlov, which has undertaken a large amount of exploration near Urga. Extensive surveys have been carried out, and rich botanical and zoological collections made, while the geological structure of the mountains of northern Mongolia has also been examined with interesting results. A number of prehistoric graves, believed to be about two thousand years old, have also been discovered and examined. The finds include gold ornaments, tapestries, and various sepulchral objects. They have been exhibited in the Russian Geographical Society's rooms at Leningrad, and have attracted much attention. Mr. Kozlov also lectured on his expedition there and in Moscow to large audiences. He has now returned to Mongolia.

In April of the present year Mr. Daydov, Chief of the Hydrographic Work of the Far East, lectured on his expedition to Wrangel Island in the summer of 1924. The object of the expedition was to make a hydrographic survey of the island, and oceanographical investigations both there and on the way thither. The ship of the expedition, the Red

October, started from Vladivostok on July 20, and East Cape was rounded on August 10. As conditions proved very favourable, many soundings and oceanographical observations were made. Ice was not encountered until the ship was within ninety-five miles of Wrangel Island, but soon became very heavy. The southern shore of the Island was surveyed, and astronomical and magnetic observations made. The return journey was begun on August 23, and the ship, after passing through ice-fields, reached the Siberian coast near Cape Yakan. An ice-free channel was found inshore which was followed until the vicinity of East Cape was reached, where the ice was found to be pressed up against the shore and great difficulties were encountered. Fuel was short and it was thought that it would be necessary to go into winter quarters, until a heavy gale from ENE. unexpectedly made escape possible. After considerable difficulties, due especially to shortage of fuel, Vladivostok was finally reached at the end of September.

Professor Schokalsky was himself engaged last summer in oceanographical investigation in the Black Sea. A convenient steamer was put at his disposal, and the scientific party consisted of oceanographers, chemists, and biologists. Investigations were confined to the eastern end of the sea, from the Crimea to Tuapse and Batum. Twenty-seven deepwater stations were established, and observations made on the distribution of temperature, on the salinity, density, oxygen, and sulphuric hydrogen contents of the water, and on the plankton. During autumn and winter supplementary cruises were carried out, and in February of the present year the observations of the previous summer were repeated, the object being to obtain material for the study of conditions throughout the year. It is hoped to continue the work during the present summer.

The Royal Geographical Society's Medals and Awards, 1925.The Founder's Medal of the Royal Geographical Society for 1925 has been awarded to Brig. Gen. the Hon. C. G. Bruce, C.B., for his lifelong geographical work in the exploration of the Himalaya, culminating in his leadership of the Mount Everest Expeditions of 1922 and 1921 the Patron's Medal to Mr. A. F. R. Wollaston for his explorations and journeys in Dutch New Guinea, Central Africa, and many other parts of the world: the Murchison Grant to Mr. Eric Teichman for his travels in China and Tibet: the Back Grant to Captain Bernier for his work in the Canadian Arctic: the Cuthbert Peak Grant to Mr. Michael Terry in support of his proposed journey across Northern Australia the Gill Memorial to Major R. E. Cheeseman for his journey to the deserts of Jafura and Jabrin in Eastern Arabia.

Personal. We are informed that the degree of Ph.D. has been awarded by Edinburgh University to Mr. D. C. T. Mekie, M.A., for a thesis entitled "The Influence of Government Interference in modifying Natural Advantages." This is the first time the degree has been awarded for a thesis in the field of economic geography.

NEW BOOKS.

EUROPE.

Racial Realities in Europe. By LOTHROP STODDARD. London: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1924. Price 12s. 6d.

Racial realities! The reader is again and again constrained to ask, What is the evidence of those realities? And it cannot be maintained that that evidence is furnished by the author. It may be that the evidence is to be found abundantly elsewhere, and that the reviewer betrays his own ignorance in asking for it. He owns to that ignorance, and hence was disappointed in finding none of that ignorance dispelled. No one can question the fact that qualities transmitted by descent must have had an important influence on history. It is indisputable that individuals derive mental and moral qualities as well as physical traits from ancestors more or less remote, and it may be taken for granted that certain qualities may in a large measure go along with physical traits widely distributed in certain communities. But it is one thing to prove this and another thing to show how the influence of such qualities may be isolated and demonstrated in the complex interactions of economic life and history. We may accept the author's assertion (p. 141) that the Pan-Germans in the arrogance that they displayed before the War "were thinking in terms of national-imperialism instead of race," but much of the author's own reasoning seems equally faulty. "We have," he says (p. 237), "studied the three European races . . . and have been impressed by the way the fortunes of the various European countries have depended primarily upon this great underlying factor," but in truth many readers. will be apt to conceive that the author, previously impressed in the manner stated, has glanced at outstanding facts of history, whether of advance or decay, success or failure, and has foisted on a reference to Nordic, Alpine, or Mediterranean as adequate explanation. To show how difficult it is to make such group judgments it may be enough to quote two or three sentences from the last number of the Economic Journal (March 1925, pp. 120-21). "When the first railways were built in Germany, foreign observers thought, and the Germans themselves believed, that the railways did not suit the spirit of the German character, as it was tuned more to a festina lente way of life. In 1820 Genovesi, an Italian writer, wrote of the Germans that they would not be able to show such an advance in trade and industry as the English and the French could boast of. Kant reproached the Italians for their keenness for the practical side of life."

But in spite of what has been said, it would be unfair not to recognise that the reader will find in this book many an illuminating remark, mostly, however, based on geography or history or both. Hearty support may also be given to the author's praise of the spirit of science, and especially in the study of ourselves (pp. 230-34); nor would we question the honesty and earnestness of the author's endeavour in pursuing that study. G. G. C.

Europe. Vol. I. The Peninsula. Edited by B. C. WALLIS, B.Sc. (Lond.). Compendium of Geography and Travel (New Issue). With Maps and Illustrations. London: Edward Stanford, Ltd., 1924. Price 158. net. The first volume of this classic survey of Europe has been put in the competent hands of Mr. Wallis for revision, and the task has been worthily performed. Much of the matter has been recast, but the form, style, and spirit of the earlier issue have been retained. Twenty-five years have elapsed since Dr. Chisholm

revised the original edition, and now Mr. Wallis has brought the information thoroughly up to date, the various changes which have taken place during that time being noted, and new illustrative maps added. The volume cannot but be of great value to all interested in our nearest neighbours. It may be pointed out, however, that the spellings of names in maps and in the text should be similar (cf. p. 636).

The Roman Occupation of Great Britain. Being Six Ford Lectures delivered by F. HAVERFIELD. Now revised by GEORGE MACDONALD. With numerous Plans and Illustrations. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1924. Price 18s. net. There is a personal note in this new edition of the late Professor Haverfield's lectures originally delivered in 1907, for it includes the biography of that very distinguished authority, which was written for the Proceedings of the British Academy by Dr. George Macdonald, and a bibliography of his writings. Along with his Romanisation of Roman Britain, of which a fourth edition, also edited by Dr. Macdonald, was published in 1923, this work will constitute the monument by which his erudition will most generally be remembered. In his easy and lucid style, illustrated as in this volume by numerous plans and views, he gives an illuminating account of the centuries of the Roman occupation, a period of our history to which we may trace back not only various remains of masonry but also it may be the national regard for ordered administration. It will be long before these two books are superseded.

A Pilgrim in Spain. By AUBREY F. G. BELL. London: Methuen and Co., Ltd., 1924. Price 12s. 6d. net.

The author of this very original and well-written work demands rather high attainments for the visitor to Spain. He must have a good knowledge of Spanish, or half his pleasure will be gone. If a traveller goes to Spain without having read the Spanish novels, he will be ill equipped to appreciate much that is interesting and significant. The best traveller is he who goes leisurely, riding or on foot. "As the Spaniards are totally unable to understand how any man in his senses can go walking across the country for pleasure or interest, the traveller should have something to sell, driving a donkey if his wares are too bulky to be carried on his person (little images or pictures of saints are easily carried). His whole position is then magically different. He is explained, he has fitted himself into the order of things. He will not be considered a tramp and a vagabond but have an honoured and assured place at every inn, a welcome at every poor house." Probably 90 per cent. of foreign travellers return without having seen a single Spanish village, and thus miss all that is most delightful in Spanish life and character. The roads are safe throughout Spain, thanks to the awe inspired by that splendid body of Guardias Civiles, a terror to evil-doers but kindly and helpful to all honest men. Danger of robbery there is none, for it is realised that none would go on foot (like Mr. Bell's Spanish traveller) who had any money. The author's idea of the average Protestant Englishman walking through Spain selling "little images or pictures of saints" is delightfully funny.

All this is very practical and entertaining, but the auther also gives fine descriptions and photographs of the three cities of Andalusia (Seville, Granada, and Cordova), Old and New Castille (Burgas, Valladolid, Leon, Salamanca, Segovia, Avila, Madrid, Toledo, etc.), Barcelona and the East Coast (Valencia, Alicante, etc.), and the villages of Las Hurdes. The author has acquired so much colour from Spain that he writes in a rich and highly coloured style. Even