Zeus had his high places also in Lydia and Mysia, where the parallel rift valleys with their broad silted floors were devoted to tillage, and hence needed the favours of the rain god for their vineyards and olive and fig orchards during the three months' drought. Ephesus and the Cayster River plain had their sacred Mount Koressus with its altar and throne of Zeus; Sardis and the Hermus River valley had the birthplace of Zeus, probably located on the culminating peak of the Tmolus range, which rose as a bold gneiss pyramid to the height of 6888 feet immediately south of the ancient Lydian capital; the fertile Caicus valley had its vast altar of Zeus on the lofty acropolis of Pergamum, 1000 feet above the sea and under the open sky; while the Trojan plain looked to the altar of Zeus on "the topmost peak" of Mount Ida, where Hector of Troy used to sacrifice. The rugged hill country of eastern Mysia had its Zeus Abrettenus, whose shrine probably lay on some height near the sources of the Macestus River. It is safe to assign sanctuaries of Zeus to the towering peak of the Mysian Olympus (8298 feet), and also to Mount Olympus of Lesbos (3045 feet).

In the Greek peninsula the mountain cult of Zeus assumes great importance on the arid Aegean side, which lies in the rain-shadow of the western mountains, and which was also the region of dense populations and big cities, demanding the reliable water supply vouchsafed only by Zeus. The mountain shrines of the rain god found on the western side of the peninsula, apart from the old Pelasgic sanctuary at Dodona in highland Epirus, were located chiefly south of the Gulf of Ambracia (Arta), which marks the northern limit of very dry summers. The island of Cephallenia, lying well within this belt of drought, had a shrine to Zeus Aenesius on the summit of Mount Aenus (5310 feet), the highest peak of the Ionian Isles. Farther south, the rich agricultural land of Messenia looked for its gifts of rain to the altar of Zeus Ithomatus on the top of Mount Ithome, whither the southward-moving Dorians had transferred him from an earlier seat on Thessalian Ithome. On the lofty summit of the Taygetos range (altitude 7905 feet), intercepting the western winds on their passage across the Peloponnesus, dwelt the ancient Zeus of the Pelasgi, demanding human sacrifices like him of Mount Lycaeus and Ithome. The altar found there by Pausanias was sacred to Helios, but the rain-making ceremonies which have been conducted on this mountain from ancient times to the present clearly point to Zeus.

On the eastern front of the Greek peninsula the Zeus sanctuaries multiply. Argolis, lying within the rain-shadow of the Peloponnesian highlands and receiving only about 15 inches of rain annually, provided itself with mountain shrines in every part of its territory. In the south there was a sanctuary of Zeus on Mount Kokkygion and a Hera shrine on Mount Pron similar to the two rain-giving shrines on the lofty range of Arachnea in the north. Argos itself, "thirsty Argos," had an altar of Rainy Zeus in the lower town; and on the Larisa, an acropolis rising abruptly 950 feet above the city proper, they built the temple of the

Larisian Zeus, and below it on the slope a sanctuary of Hera of the Height. Twelve miles north of Argos, on the highest point of the route from Mycenae to Corinth, was the valley of Nemea (1200 feet) with its temple of Nemean Zeus, its sacred cypress grove and fountain, which constituted the national sanctuary of all the Peloponnesian Greeks and the biennial scene of the Nemean games in honour of Zeus. The valley was overlooked on the north-east by Mount Apesas (2865 feet), on whose summit Perseus is said to have first sacrificed to Zeus Apesantius.

Attica's meagre rainfall accounts for the numerous shrines of Zeus which capped all the rocky peaks rising from the Cephisus River plain, while Mount Olympus (1600 feet) near the southern end of the Attic peninsula suggests another hill-top altar of the god. Boeotia, which comprised the best arable land in all Hellas and depended almost entirely upon the products of its soil, looked to the rain-giving Zeus to help its tillage. Besides the altars of the god on Mount Helicon and Cithaeron, it had a temple and statue of the Supreme Zeus on the top of Mount Hypatos (2434 feet high), above the town of Glisas; an image of the Chaeronean Zeus on the summit of the crag Petrachus above Chaeronea; and most famous of all, an altar with a sacred grotto and wonderworking spring located on Mount Laphystion (2940 feet), near Lebadea or Coronea. This cult, which was probably as ancient as Orchomenus, involved human sacrifices when the deadly sequence of drought, crop failure, and famine visited the land of Boeotia. The tradition runs that in one such period of disaster Athamas, a legendary king of Boeotia, was ordered by the Delphic oracle to sacrifice his children to Zeus. He had placed the boy Phryxos on the altar, when their mother Nephele ("Cloud") seized both children and set them on a golden ram, which flew away with them. Here a ram was substituted for the human victim, as in the story of Isaac.

Thessaly, though located farther north than Hellas, nevertheless lay in the rain shadow of the massive Pindus ranges, and was surrounded by mountains which tended to exclude the rains from its fertile lake plains. Therefore it had on the north the sacred mountain of Olympus ; on the west, a temple of Zeus high up on the watershed of the Pindus Mountains above the town of Gomphi, and in all probability a Zeus altar on the original Mount Ithome, a spur of the Pindus; and on the east, the famous altar of Zeus Acraeus on Mount Pelion, whose clouds were a weather-gauge for all Thessaly. This lofty massif (5350 feet), rising from the Aegean coast, at times bred violent thunderstorms and torrential rains. Therefore at the climax of the summer heat and drought, when the Dog Star rose (July 25), a procession of noble youths, clad as to their shoulders with fleecy sheep-skins, used to ascend through the leafy forests of Pelion to the altar of Zeus and the cave of Achilles on its summit, and there offer sacrifices for rain. Here we have another of those dramatised prayers. The white fleeces on the boys' shoulders represented the clouds which they hoped might gather on the mountain and bring the wished-for showers. Their purpose was

scarcely protection against the cold, as Leake suggests, because the midsummer temperature on Pelion would necessitate no such covering.

The islands of the Aegean Sea lie for the most part south of the 40th parallel, in the region of almost rainless summers. They have therefore cherished the cult of the mountain Zeus, especially since their small area precluded any, considerable water supply, except so far as their mountains collected moisture from the passing clouds. A hill-top cult of Zeus is suggested for Lesbos by the presence of a Mount Olympus there. The long mountain backbone of Euboea, which offered weather signs to Hellas, had two peaks consecrated to the rain god. The Zeus cult on Kos reveals the rain-bringing character of the god unmistakably. The islands of Minos were suffering from prolonged heat and drought, when Aristaeus, herd or tillage god, went to Kos and there built an altar to Zeus Ikmaius (the Moistener) on a hill and sacrificed to Sirius to avert the evil. "The priests of Kos to-day sacrifice to Zeus just before Sirius rises," thus recalling the cult on Mount Pelion. Delos, though consecrated to Apollo, had a temple of Zeus on Mount Cynthos (350 feet), "the Cynthian rock with lofty horn," highest point of the island. Crete had not only its Zeus Idaeus and Zeus Diktaeus, but also a temple of the Diktaean Zeus on the citadel of the city of Phaesus, located on the eastern end of the Diktaean range at 2466 feet altitude.

From Crete the worship of the mountain Zeus was transplanted to Rhodes by Cretan colonists, who built a temple of Zeus on Mount Atabyrius (4070 feet), the highest peak of the island, and provided it with priests able to invoke rain, hail, and snow. The little island of Chalke, off the west coast of Rhodes, had its hill-top crowned by a double rock throne inscribed to Zeus and Hekate. Wherever the Dorians spread, they carried their mountain Zeus with them. The contingent which colonised Cyrene on the Barka peninsula of North Africa established a shrine of Lycaean Zeus on a hill overlooking their city, to secure his services as a rain god in that region of scant precipitation.

Mountain Cult of Jupiter.-The cult sites of Jupiter, whether groves, altars, or temples, point to the primitive worship of the god for the most part on the high places, in Rome as in all Italy, in pre-Roman and in Roman times. Jupiter and Juno were described by the terms Acraeus and Acraea, "dwellers on the heights," Livy says, because their temples stood on hills and mountains. Furthermore, the aboriginal Italian god Saturn, possibly a forerunner of Jove, was associated with the period of the autumn rains as patron of the sowing; and he too left his name on many hills and high places of Italy which once bore his shrines.

The earliest Latin sanctuary was that of Jupiter Latiaris, located in a grove on the summit of Mons Albanus (3115 feet), the culminating peak of the Alban massif, which overlooks the plains of Latium. There the common festival of the Latin League, the Feriae Latinae, was annually celebrated about the end of April, when the winter rains were diminishing and the dry season approaching with its danger to pastures and crops. It was a rustic festival, with offerings of cheese, sacrifice of a

white heifer, and libations of milk, evidence of an early origin among a pastoral people; and it may have been a preliminary ceremony to the departure of the flocks and herds to the highland pastures for the summer. With the establishment of Roman leadership among the Latin towns, the old cult was revived; a temple of Jupiter Latiaris was built by one of the Tarquin kings in place of the old shrine, and became the terminus of the triumphal procession of Roman victors and the place of sacrifice for every newly elected consul.

The glimpses which we get of the native gods of the Italian tribes, before the levelling influence of Roman dominion and of imported Hellenic deities had obliterated local religious differentiations, are scant and fragmentary. Yet they reveal a mountain cult of Jupiter in the various tribal territories which in time composed the mosaic state of Rome. The Sabellian tribe of the Marrucini on the Adriatic celebrated a festival of Jupiter and Juno of Mount Tarincris, possibly a spur of the Abruzzi; while the Sabines had a mountain god in Jupiter Cacunus, a dedication to whom was discovered on Mount Moretta in the district of Trebula Mutuesca. Umbria had its native Jupiter cult, with official observation of weather conditions, as attested by the famous Tables of Iguvium. In Etruria Jupiter, as the successor of the old Etruscan storm god Tina, was enthroned in a temple on the high fortress hill of every Etruscan town, where his cult showed close kinship with that of Zeus.

Each Latin town probably had its own hill-top shrine of Jupiter, besides the common sanctuary on Mount Albanus. Nearly all the seven hills of Rome were crowned with sanctuaries of Jupiter. Oldest and greatest was that of Jupiter Capitolinus, chief god of the Roman state. It occupied the southern peak of the Capitoline Hill, where Romulus first consecrated the spoils of war on a sacred oak tree and deposited the holy lapis manalis or silex or thunderbolt in the little shrine, and where later Augustus built his great temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. On the northern peak of the hill was the station of the augurs or auguraculum, for the interpretation of the heavenly phenomena, by which Jove gave signs of his will. The Capitoline held also a shrine of Jupiter Summanus, god of lightning by night; and one of Jupiter Terminus, because the primitive Jupiter, like the primitive Zeus, was guardian of boundaries. To the Capitoline Hill, in times of prolonged drought, as already stated, barefoot women and magistrates ascended in solemn procession. A rainproducing ceremony was connected also with the cult of Jupiter Elicius at his ancient altar on the Aventine Hill. There was a Jupiter Fagitalis on the Esquiline, a Jupiter Viminus on the Viminal, a Jupiter Caelius on the Caelian, which was known also as the Mount of the Oak Grove, and an old Jove worship on the Quirinal.

To the north of Rome lay the old volcanic mass of Mons Ciminius, mantled in dense forests and sacred to Jupiter Ciminius, who presided over its summit, probably as a rain-giver. Jupiter Tifatinus, whose temple capped the singular horn-shaped height of Mount Tifata (1975

feet) near ancient Capua, and Jupiter Vesuvius of the volcanic peak may have been local Campanian deities, though they cannot escape the suspicion of a Greek origin in the Hellenic colonies on the Neapolitan coast. Aetnean Zeus, whose glory Pindar sang, was transmuted into the Aetnean Jove, in whose honour the Roman Senate caused altars to be erected.

Likewise the temple of Zeus Atabyrius, built by Rhodian colonists on the high citadel of Akragas in Sicily, became the sanctuary of Jove of Agrigentum, when Sicily was incorporated in the Roman dominion. The Hellenisation of Roman religion after the second Punic War and the conquest of Greek Sicily possibly intensified the original bent of the Romans to enthrone their chief god on the heights, in imitation of the Zeus cult. We find the Roman frontiersmen of the Empire establishing a Jupiter Culminalis on some peak in the Danube country of Pannonia, and a Jupiter Deus Poeninus on the Great St. Bernard Pass in the Pennine Alps.

In short, the most high god, high both in a physical and a religious sense, recurs in all the Mediterranean lands which belong to the climatic region of winter rains and summer droughts, and to the physiographic region of young folded or block mountains rising from the blue waters of the Mare Internum.

THE IRON ORES OF NORMANDY.

By H. V. JANAU, F.R.G.S.

(With Diagrams, Illustrations, and Sketch-Maps.)

THE War, and perhaps still more, the attempts to bring about a state of peace, have aroused a widespread interest in the question of the supplies of iron in western Europe, a question which, until then, had occupied the attention of comparatively few besides those directly concerned with the industry. Chief among these sources of supply are those of France, where the enormous output from the mines of Lorraine tends to obscure the fact that there are other deposits in the country, which, though comparatively insignificant from the point of view of output, are capable of yielding ores of good quality in quantities that are commercially remunerative. An attempt is here made to give an account of the deposits which rank next in importance to those of Lorraine, namely those in the departments of Calvados and Orne in the province of Normandy.

Historical. The iron ores of Normandy and Brittany were worked in pre-Roman times by the Gauls. The Romans improved on their predecessors' methods and introduced the Catalan forge. Only the superficial deposits were worked, and the methods employed were so wasteful that the slag heaps provided sources of iron over long periods