The judgment of those competent to speak seems to differ on this point. An authority in American education, reared as a boy on the farm, educated in a common country school and in the State University, a traveler, a sojourner in many great cities and finally Dean of the School of Education in a State University, has given us his conclusions in the book entitled “Rural Life and the Rural School." In this book he points out all the shortcomings of country life. Then, turning to the other side of the picture, he shows that there are fewer hours of labor than formerly on the farm, that the

FIG. 12. A prosperous Icelandic farmer and son in North Dakota.

mental factor is growing, that, so far as the boy is concerned, the farm boys enjoy time to go fishing, hunting, skating, coasting, trapping; that he learns the ways and habits of beasts, birds and fishes; that the lessons now taught to the Boy Scouts with so much effort and learned easily and early by the farm boy, that even his daily and regular work under most strenuous conditions is of a large and varied kind-not like the making of one-tenth of a pin, which has a tendency to reduce the worker to one-tenth of a man. "On the farm" says this writer, "the worker begins and finishes a piece of work. He sees it through. The whole of it receives expression in him. It is his piece of work, and it faces him as he has to face it. The tendency is for both to be honest." In view of the circumstances and opportunities just mentioned, life in the

country is the best and most complete life possible to a human being. "Country life" continues this writer, "is the best cradle of the race. To have a good home and rear a family in the heart of a great city is well-nigh impossible for the average laboring man. The struggle for existence is too fierce, and the opportunity in childhood and youth for self-expression and initiative is too meager. The environment is too vast, complex and overwhelming, with nothing worth while for the child to do. Individuals may stand, but generations will slip on such an inclined plane of life." 4 While the surface attractions of the city are more alluring, yet country life is "the finest life on earth" is the Dean's conclusion.

We have already mentioned in this book that George Washington was a successful farmer. He enjoyed not only the economic but all the other returns of agriculture. In the closing years of his life he wrote as follows to the great English student of farming, Arthur Young: "The more I am acquainted with agricultural affairs the better I am pleased with them, insomuch that I can nowhere find so great satisfaction as in those innocent and useful pursuits. In indulging these feelings, I am led to reflect how much more delightful to an undebauched mind is the task of making improvements on the earth than all the vain glory which can be acquired from ravaging it by the most uninterrupted career of conquest."

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT

1. What is the significance of the economic factor in drawing people to or away from the farm?

2. Does farming pay? What factors are to be considered in answering this question?

3. Cite the findings of a federal "survey" giving the farmer's annual income. Does this study include the value of house rent and the use of a garden? 4. Cite the examples of successful farming given by Mr. Shade. 5. According to Bradford Knapp what is the great problem of to-day? Give the facts on which he bases his statement. State his three reasons for the city drift of population.

6. Cite Goldenweiser's conclusions as to the relative prosperity of the farmer. 7. Cite the conclusions of Vogt on the same subject.

8. Explain the "survey" method, as exemplified by Warren and Livermore.

Define these terms: capital; receipts; expenses; farm income; labor income.

9. What has been the estimated money value of those products contributed by the farm to the farmer's living?

10. Show difficulty of comparing farm and city incomes. Illustrate. What are the chief advantages of city life, not represented by money cost? 11. Is the farmer's income too low? Indicate the kind of "income" you are

REFERENCES

QUESTIONS SUGGESTED BY THE TEXT

95

1. In calculating the farmer's income give reasons for and against allowing lowing interest on his investment; for and against allowing income for house rent and garden produce.

2. As used in agriculture what is included in the term "capital"?

3. What conclusions are we justified in reaching concerning the relative income of farmers and city dwellers?

REFERENCES

1. FUNK, W. C.: "What the Farm Contributes Directly to the Farmer's Living." Farmers' Bulletin 635, United States Department of Agriculture. 2. GOLDENWEISER, E. A.: "The Farmer's Income." Farmers' Bulletin 746, United States Department of Agriculture.

3. VOGT, PAUL L.: "The Farmer's Labor Income." American Economic Review, Dec., 1916.

4. WARREN, G. F., AND LIVERMORE, K. C.: "An Agricultural Survey, Township of Ithaca, Dryden, Danby, and Lansing, Tompkins County, New York." Bulletin 295, College of Agriculture, Cornell University, March, 1911.

5. VON TUNGELN, GEORGE H.: "A Rural Social Survey of Orange Township, Blackhawk County, Iowa." Bulletin 184, Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station, Dec., 1918.

6. KENNEDY, JOSEPH: "Rural Life and the Rural School.”

CHAPTER VII

AGRICULTURAL LABOR

Several Aspects of the Farm Labor Question. - Reference is frequently made to the problem, so called, of farm labor. Is there such a problem, and if so what is it? A very brief investigation convinces anyone that there is such a problem. It is illustrated by the report made in 1913 by our Consul at Leeds, England, on the "English Farm Labor Problem." In this report our Consul speaks as follows:

"The northern counties of England are experiencing an inconvenient condition caused by a dearth of farm labor. General opinion voiced by members of chambers of agriculture indicates that it is realized that farm servants do not get sufficient relaxation; cottage accommodation is often poor, and there is little incentive generally for a man to settle to a life's work of labor on the farm. Some say that most farmers would be quite agreeable to granting, at convenient seasons, sufficient relaxation to their servants to make up for any compulsory half holiday such as most other industries enjoy. Others think that the possibility of one pound ($4.87) a week as wages and cottage would keep men from moving into the town.

"Big batches of farm laborers are emigrating; often 20 to 30 together. In many cases Canada or Australia is the destination.

"Agitation is afoot to form a Farm Workers' Union. Meetings of farm laborers have been addressed by officials of the Workers' Union for enrolling sufficient men and women to warrant forming branches. A press statement says:

""The aim of the Workers' Union, or the agricultural section of it, as set out in the literature disseminated is to secure a working week of not more than 60 hours, payment for overtime work, and extra pay for all Sunday labor; limitation of hours for all women workers; fixing of a minimum wage rate, both for piecework and day-work, all employees to know at the time of hiring the rates they will have to work at; and to secure the freedom of laborers' cottages.'

"Comparisons have been drawn between the earnings of the women of agricultural sections of the county, making 30 to 37 cents per day at some classes of work, and the earnings of the women weavers of Lancashire, who can make $6.70 per week. From the news reports it appears that the farm laborer is slow to respond to the agitation. All his characteristics prepare one for that attitude, but every fresh hiring timo is showing him his position of vantage for making terms.

"At the recent Whitsuntide hirings higher prices had to be paid all around for farm hands, who then hire out for a six-months' term. The next term commences Martinmas, November 11. The following are some of the hiring wages paid at the chief centers; board and lodging in addition:

men

men

Boys and Girls and youths

SIMILAR CONDITIONS IN UNITED STATES

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This report indicates the several aspects of the farm labor question. There was published at London in 1913 for official use by the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries a Report on Migration from Rural Districts in England and Wales. This report, like the consular report above quoted, indicates the situation confronting England. This London report says that there certainly appears to be a fairly general deficiency of skilled farm hands. The manual arts of agriculture are being neglected even by those who still seek employment on the land. To quote the words of the report, we have the following:

"The low wages in the rural districts are mentioned as a cause of discontent, but it may be doubted whether this in itself is so powerful a factor as the lack of opportunity, and, in fact, there appears no evidence that emigration is greatest in districts where wages are lowest. More than once in these reports it is observed that many who emigrate would prefer to stay at home if they could see a reasonable prospect of advancement in life. Better education, and, as is remarked by some, a kind of education which gives a distaste for country life, is referred to; while the desire for shorter hours of work, for free Sundays and for more holidays is also mentioned; but these are causes for leaving the country which are more likely to lead to migration to the town than emigration to the colonies. The lack of housing accom accommodation is frequently mentioned as influencing men to leave the villages. It appears paradoxical that complaint should be made at the same time of dwindling population and insufficient cottages, but there can be no doubt that the question of rural housing is acute." 2

Similar Conditions in the United States. These reports bring before our mind conditions in England. Similar conditions exist in the United States. The chief difference is that with us the difficulties are more sharply accentuated. A great many reports and a great many books have been printed dealing with agricultural labor in the United States. It seems to me, however, that the two following letters, written with no thought of publication, throw considerable light on the question. The first letter is from a young man who had been working on a North Dakota farm in the summer time. The second letter is from a social worker in Chicago and goes into the problem of taking the unemployed man from the city and placing him on the farm. The letters are printed exactly as they were written.

"Doubtless it will surprise you to hear from me in this town, but I came up here last night. I couldn't stand the pressure of the farm any longer. The man I worked for was a fine fellow, but like all North Dakota farmers he had no respect for the Sabbath. We worked the last three Sundays and had good prospects for working four more, and I did not like that, so I left.

"Yesterday was the first time I had a bath in over three weeks. Last Sunday morning after breakfast I shaved myself before I went to work. I

2 Board of Agriculture and Fisheries. Report on Migration from Rural Districts in England and Wales, 1913, p. 3.